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| Female Genital Mutilation |
Female genital mutilation remains a serious health and human-rights issue affecting millions of girls and women around the world, including in Nigeria.
FGM can cause immediate complications such as severe pain, bleeding and infection, but its effects may continue for years. Some survivors experience urinary, menstrual, sexual, psychological or childbirth complications.
Understanding FGM therefore requires more than describing the procedure. Families and communities need accurate information about why it is harmful, while girls and women who have already undergone FGM need respectful healthcare without stigma or judgement.
What Is Female Genital Mutilation?
Female genital mutilation, commonly abbreviated as FGM, refers to procedures involving partial or total removal of the external female genitalia or other injury to female genital organs for non-medical reasons.
FGM has no health benefit.
It damages otherwise healthy genital tissue and can interfere with normal bodily functions.
FGM is also internationally recognised as a violation of the human rights of girls and women. When performed on children, it is also a violation of children's rights.
How Common Is FGM?
Female genital mutilation remains a global problem.
According to the World Health Organization, more than 230 million girls and women alive today have undergone FGM in countries where nationally representative data are available.
FGM is concentrated particularly in parts of Africa, the Middle East and Asia, although migration means women and girls affected by FGM now live throughout the world.
Millions more remain at risk.
For 2026 alone, United Nations agencies estimated that approximately 4.5 million girls were at risk of undergoing FGM, many of them younger than five years.
Female Genital Mutilation in Nigeria
FGM remains an important women's and children's health issue in Nigeria, although its prevalence varies substantially between states and communities.
Current UNICEF data indicate that approximately 14% of Nigerian girls and women aged 15 to 49 have undergone FGM.
National averages, however, can hide substantial geographical differences.
Available subnational data show considerably higher prevalence in some southern and southwestern states than in many northern states.
For example, 2021 Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey data compiled by UNICEF reported prevalence among females aged 15 to 49 of approximately:
Kwara: 58.3%
Ekiti: 50.4%
Osun: 44.7%
Oyo: 43.2%
Imo: 38.0%
Delta: 33.8%
Ondo: 25.1%
Lagos: 21.2%
These differences show why FGM prevention in Nigeria cannot rely only on a national prevalence figure. Interventions need to address the beliefs, family structures and social expectations operating within individual communities.
There has nevertheless been encouraging progress among younger Nigerian women and girls. UNICEF's compilation of national survey data shows FGM prevalence among females aged 15 to 19 declining from 12.9% in 2003 to 6.7% in 2021.
Progress is important, but elimination has not yet been achieved.
Who Is Most at Risk of FGM?
FGM can occur at different ages depending on the community.
Globally, it is predominantly performed between infancy and adolescence, although adult women can also undergo the procedure.
In Nigeria, cutting may occur very early in childhood in some communities.
Risk can be influenced by factors including:
family and community traditions;
social expectations;
geographical location;
beliefs surrounding marriage;
beliefs about female sexuality;
pressure from relatives or community members; and
continuation of the practice across generations.
No cultural or social justification makes FGM medically beneficial.
Why Is FGM Practised?
There is no single explanation.
FGM persists through combinations of social expectations, traditional practices, gender norms and misconceptions.
Social and cultural expectations
In communities where FGM has existed for generations, families may continue the practice because they believe it is expected of them.
Parents may even believe that following the tradition protects their daughter's future social acceptance.
Pressure from family and community
Parents can experience pressure from relatives, older family members or influential people within their communities.
Fear that a girl may experience stigma, rejection or difficulty marrying can reinforce the practice.
Beliefs about sexuality
Some communities incorrectly believe that FGM controls female sexual desire, promotes premarital virginity or prevents infidelity.
FGM should not be used to control another person's sexuality.
Marriage and adulthood
In some settings, FGM has historically been treated as part of preparing a girl for adulthood or marriage.
Changing these expectations requires engagement with entire communities rather than placing responsibility only on individual girls or mothers.
Religious misconceptions
FGM is sometimes presented as a religious obligation.
However, the World Health Organization notes that no religious scriptures prescribe the practice, and religious leaders have taken different positions regarding FGM, including participating in efforts to end it.
What Are the Four Types of FGM?
The World Health Organization classifies FGM into four major types.
Type I
Type I involves partial or total removal of the clitoral glans and/or the clitoral hood.
It has historically also been called clitoridectomy.
Type II
Type II involves partial or total removal of the clitoral glans and labia minora, with or without removal of the labia majora.
This type is sometimes called excision.
Type III
Type III is known as infibulation.
It involves narrowing the vaginal opening by creating a covering seal through cutting and repositioning the labia minora or labia majora, sometimes through stitching.
It may occur with or without removal of parts of the clitoris.
Women with Type III FGM may later require a procedure called deinfibulation, in which the scar tissue is opened to improve health outcomes or facilitate sexual intercourse or childbirth.
Type IV
Type IV includes other harmful procedures performed on female genitalia for non-medical reasons.
Examples include:
pricking;
piercing;
incising;
scraping; and
cauterisation.
The fact that a procedure may appear less extensive does not make it medically necessary or harmless.
Does FGM Have Any Health Benefits?
No.
There is no medically recognised health benefit from FGM.
Performing FGM in a clinic, hospital or other healthcare environment does not change this.
Healthcare professionals should not perform FGM.
Medicalising the procedure may create a false impression that FGM can become safe when performed by a healthcare professional. It cannot.
Immediate Health Complications of FGM
Complications can occur during or shortly after the procedure.
They include:
severe pain;
excessive bleeding or haemorrhage;
swelling of genital tissues;
infection, including tetanus;
fever;
difficulty urinating;
problems with wound healing;
injury to surrounding tissues;
shock; and
death in severe cases.
The severity of complications can vary considerably depending on the procedure and circumstances.
Long-Term Health Effects of FGM
Some consequences may not become apparent until months or years later.
Urinary problems
Some women experience painful urination or recurrent urinary tract infections.
Menstrual difficulties
Scarring or narrowing of the vaginal opening can contribute to painful menstruation or difficulty with menstrual flow.
Vaginal and reproductive-health problems
Women may experience recurrent discharge, itching or infections.
Scar tissue and keloids
Abnormal or excessive scar formation can develop following genital injury.
Sexual-health problems
FGM can be associated with pain during sexual intercourse and reduced sexual wellbeing or satisfaction.
Not every survivor experiences the same effects, and healthcare should be individualised.
Mental-health effects
Some survivors experience psychological consequences such as:
anxiety;
depression;
post-traumatic stress symptoms;
fear surrounding sexual activity; or
distress associated with medical examinations and childbirth.
These experiences deserve appropriate psychological support rather than judgement.
FGM and Pregnancy or Childbirth
FGM can have important implications during pregnancy and delivery.
Depending on the type and severity, women may face increased risks of:
difficult labour;
excessive bleeding;
caesarean delivery;
problems associated with extensive scar tissue; and
complications affecting the newborn.
Pregnant women who have undergone FGM should tell an appropriately trained healthcare professional during antenatal care where they feel safe doing so.
This allows the maternity team to assess whether additional planning or treatment may be necessary before delivery.
What Is Deinfibulation?
Deinfibulation is a medical procedure that opens scar tissue associated with Type III FGM.
It may be considered when narrowing of the vaginal opening causes health problems or creates difficulties with sexual intercourse, examinations or childbirth.
The procedure should be undertaken by appropriately trained healthcare professionals following proper counselling and informed consent.
WHO's updated 2025 guideline includes recommendations concerning deinfibulation and its timing.
Can the Effects of FGM Be Treated?
FGM itself cannot simply be reversed, but many associated complications can be assessed and treated.
Care may involve:
treatment of infections;
management of urinary symptoms;
menstrual-health assessment;
management of chronic pain;
sexual-health care;
obstetric and maternity care;
deinfibulation where clinically appropriate; and
psychological or mental-health support.
The type of care required depends on the individual and the complications experienced.
When Should Someone Seek Medical Care?
A girl or woman should receive urgent medical attention following genital cutting if she develops:
heavy or persistent bleeding;
severe pain;
fever;
inability or difficulty passing urine;
loss of consciousness;
severe weakness;
rapidly increasing swelling;
signs of infection; or
other serious symptoms.
Someone who underwent FGM years earlier can also seek healthcare for persistent urinary, menstrual, sexual, psychological or reproductive-health problems.
There is no requirement to wait until pregnancy or an emergency before discussing FGM-related health concerns with a healthcare professional.
Healthcare for FGM Survivors Should Be Respectful
Women and girls living with FGM should not be blamed or stigmatised.
Many survivors underwent the procedure when they were children and had no ability to provide meaningful consent.
Healthcare professionals should provide confidential, respectful and culturally sensitive care.
A survivor seeking help deserves appropriate medical treatment, clear information and involvement in decisions about her own healthcare.
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| Types of Female Genital Mutilation |
Ending FGM requires more than telling individual parents not to perform it.
The social conditions that sustain the practice also need to change.
Effective approaches can include:
Community education
Families need accurate information about the health consequences of FGM and misconceptions surrounding the practice.
Engaging men and boys
FGM should not be treated solely as a women's issue.
Men and boys can influence marriage expectations, household decisions and community attitudes.
Working with community and religious leaders
Trusted community figures can challenge misconceptions and help change social expectations.
Empowering girls and women
Education, economic opportunities and stronger decision-making power can contribute to broader efforts to protect girls' rights.
Training healthcare workers
Healthcare professionals need training to recognise FGM, manage complications appropriately, communicate sensitively with survivors and avoid medicalisation of the practice.
Laws and policies
Legal protections are important, but enforcement should operate alongside community engagement, education and accessible survivor services.
Why Medicalisation Is Not the Answer
Some families may believe FGM becomes safer when performed by a doctor, nurse, midwife or other healthcare worker.
That is incorrect.
Medicalisation does not provide a health benefit or remove the ethical and human-rights concerns surrounding FGM.
WHO specifically opposes healthcare professionals performing FGM.
Health workers should instead contribute to prevention, counselling and treatment of complications.
Frequently Asked Questions
Is female genital mutilation the same as female circumcision?
The term "female circumcision" is sometimes used colloquially, but female genital mutilation (FGM) is the internationally recognised terminology used by WHO and many international health organisations because the procedures can involve significant injury to healthy genital tissue.
Is FGM medically necessary?
No. FGM has no medical indication or health benefit.
Can FGM cause infertility?
Some complications, particularly infections and reproductive-health problems, may affect fertility in some women. This does not mean every woman who has undergone FGM will experience infertility.
Can FGM affect childbirth?
Yes. Some forms of FGM are associated with increased risks during labour and delivery. Appropriate antenatal assessment can help healthcare professionals plan care.
Can a woman who has undergone FGM have a healthy pregnancy?
Yes. Many women who have undergone FGM have healthy pregnancies and births. However, some forms of FGM increase the risk of obstetric complications, making appropriate antenatal care particularly important.
Is FGM only practised in Africa?
No. Although prevalence is concentrated in parts of Africa, FGM also occurs in some communities in the Middle East and Asia. Migration also means survivors and girls at risk live in many other regions of the world.
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| Prevalence of Female Genital Mutilation by Regions and countries |
No religious scripture prescribes FGM. The practice is associated with social and cultural traditions that can cross religious boundaries.
The Bottom Line
Female genital mutilation has no health benefits.
It can cause immediate complications including severe pain, bleeding, infection and urinary difficulties, while some survivors experience long-term reproductive, sexual, psychological, menstrual or childbirth complications.
More than 230 million girls and women worldwide are living with the consequences of FGM, and millions of girls remain at risk.
Nigeria has made progress, particularly among younger generations, but major geographical differences show that the practice remains deeply rooted in some communities.
Ending FGM requires education, community engagement, protection of girls, involvement of men and community leaders, responsible healthcare practice and support for survivors.
And for women and girls already living with its consequences, the message is equally important:
FGM should never define how a survivor is treated. Compassionate, confidential and appropriate healthcare should always be available.
References
World Health Organization. (2025). Female genital mutilation. WHO.
World Health Organization. (2025). WHO guideline on the prevention of female genital mutilation and clinical management of complications. Geneva: WHO.
UNICEF. Nigeria: Demographics, health and child protection data.
UNICEF Nigeria & UNFPA. (2024). Standing with survivors to end female genital mutilation in Nigeria.
World Health Organization, UNICEF, UNFPA, UN Women, OHCHR & UNESCO. (2026). Over four million girls still at risk of female genital mutilation: UN leaders call for sustained commitment and investment to end FGM.
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